The Importance of Transformational Leadership During a Company Crisis Research Paper

The Importance of Transformational Leadership During a Company Crisis - Research Paper Example The Importance of Transformational Leadership during a Company Crisis: The Case of Wal-Mart Background of the Study A lot of research on initiative has been completed as such idea has been related with a wide scope of variables including the procedure of dynamic, pioneer devotee cooperation, and objective foundation and achievement, to give some examples (Steane, Hua, and Teo, 2003). The idea that the idea of authority can make huge commitment for innovative work has been generally recognized by academicians and hierarchical pioneers the same. Because of the fast changes in globalization and mechanical patterns, there has likewise been an expansion in the need and endeavor of organizations to put more endeavors in holding a solid workforce while tending to the intricate requests and inclinations of their clients (Nielsen, Randall, Yarker, and Brenner, 2008). On account of these worries, associations have recognized the need to viably actualize authority, particularly as it has been o ften connected to good results, for example, an expansion in execution, viability, and responsibility just as improved hierarchical achievement. Subsequently, powerful initiative turns into a critical need for any organization. Development and imagination alone may not be sufficiently adequate to address both inward and outer weights while the usage of different strategies and practices don't in every case fundamentally produce results except if powerful pioneers are made. Pioneers must have the qualities and goals that are important to prompt any required change while holding an engaged workforce to help make progress (Jung and Sosik, 2002). The vision that they set up and the qualities that they live out and exhibit to their adherents assumes a pertinent job when such pioneers settle on choices that will affect the whole association. Larger part of administration contemplates have shown that transformational authority can be the best type of initiative to realize change in any gat hering of people by decidedly rousing these individuals to make the essential change for their prosperity (Conger, 1999). Pioneers who adopt the transformational strategy are commonly fit for rousing their adherents to grasp such changes, improve their exhibition, and be set up to open up to new practices, for the better of the association (Avolio, Zhu, Kho, and Bhatia, 2004). Organization Background and Description of the Crisis Sam Walton established Wal-Mart Stores Inc. in 1962, with its first central command situated in Bentonville, Arkansas. It was first referred to over the United States as the â€Å"largest basic food item retailer† and has really extended to remember an aggregate of 8,500 for 15 nations, with the stores taking an alternate name. For example, in the United Kingdom, the stores are known as Asda, while in Mexico, a few stores are known as Walmex, while India has taken to the name Best Price (Buerkle, 1999). Among the emergencies tormenting Wal-Mart incor porate a negative picture with respect to how it pays its laborers. As per an article distributed in Bloomberg Businessweek, Wal-Mart has been attempting to improve its notoriety in light of the low wages it has been known to

The Terror Was Appropriate For The French Revolution To Succeed. Essay

The Terror Was Appropriate For The French Revolution To Succeed. The Use of Terror was Necessary for The French Revolution To Succeed The contribution of the Reign of Terror was mandatory for the French Revolution to Prevail. Sure this period in History was liable for the annihilation of in excess of 20,000 individuals yet it would get rid of the foes of the republic paying little mind to past loyalties and expressions of love. Barbarous, cruel and uncaring, it would be controlled at the solicitation and to assist the country. (Decay, p110) Originally known as the Region of Terror it was a period running from September 1793 to August 1794, executed by the 12 individuals from the Committee of Public Safety and managed by Maximilien Robespierre. What realized the Terror? After the illustrious family was caught in Varennes, Moderate Revolutionaries despite everything needed to safeguard the protected government, while the radicals doubted the King and needed a republic. Numerous people groups' lives changed during this time, people groups' thoughts additionally changed. Food costs continued ascending, to pay for the war. The administration was printing colossal measures of paper cash called assignats. However, the more certified receipts it printed, the less they were worth: The Currency was experiencing swelling (Brooman, p43) By 1793 a monetary order was worth just a large portion of the sum imprinted on it. Bread were getting costly, in light of the fact that ranchers would not like to sell their grain in return for the now significant cash. Thus eager Sans Culottes assaulted food stores to accumulate and expend food they couldn't buy. Food deficiencies currently happened. At the point when Louis XVI and his significant other fled to the Legislative gathering, they were detained. they required a National Convention to compose a more current constitution. The National Convention met in September. The National Convention attempted and indicted Louis XVI for treachery. He was condemned to death. Updates on his passing spread all through Europe. Rulers of European Nations expected that the upset would spread and would transpire. By 1793, the French Armies involved the Austrian Netherlands and were going to attack Prussia. In any case, in 1793, Great Britain, the Dutch Netherlands, and Spain obliged Prussia and Austria in a war against France. With these five incredible countries battling against France, the French were dwarfed and outmatched. This war made numerous passings at home due Starvation. Individuals imagined that upset had gone excessively far and ought to be put to an End. Who made the Committee of Public Safety, Why, What and Who are they, What did they need? In the push to reestablish impermanent harmony in the general public, the National Convention made a constitution that made a Committee of Public Safety. The 12 individuals from the Committee were changed each month, it had expansive forces which incorporated the association of the country's safeguards, all international strategy, and the management of pastors. The Committee additionally requested captures and preliminaries for Counter Revolutionaries and forced government authority the country over. The Committee consistently amassed force and control of government. Just twelve men controlled the Committee of Public Safety, Some individuals included St. Andre, St. Just, Lindet, Collot d'Herbois, Barere, however it was at last driven by Maximilien Robespierre. Prieur de le Cote' Or, One of it's individuals, portrayed how the board of trustees functioned: From 7 o'clock they took themselves to their workplaces to understand despatches. At 10 o'clock the individuals present took up the business close by and talked about it and choices were reached. At 1 o'clock not many individuals will leave to go to the principle meetings of the show, others proceeded with their business. At 5 or 6 PM they left to eat and 8:00 the gathering was continued. (Essential Sources you gave us in Class, The number on header was 16 - The Revolutionary Government. An arrangement part of The French Revolution assortment.) History Reports

Manage Wedding Vows With Social Anxiety Disorder

Manage Wedding Vows With Social Anxiety Disorder Social Anxiety Disorder Coping Print Manage Wedding Vows With Social Anxiety Disorder By Arlin Cuncic Arlin Cuncic, MA, is the author of Therapy in Focus: What to Expect from CBT for Social Anxiety Disorder and 7 Weeks to Reduce Anxiety. Learn about our editorial policy Arlin Cuncic Updated on February 04, 2020 Social Anxiety Disorder Overview Symptoms & Diagnosis Causes Treatment Living With In Children pixdeluxe / Getty Images If you suffer from social anxiety disorder (SAD) and are getting married, you may be worried about saying your wedding vows in front of a large group. In addition to receiving proper treatment such as cognitive-behavioral therapy or medication, there are strategies you can use to reduce wedding vows anxiety. Strategies to Reduce Anxiety When Saying Your Vows Make them meaningful: If possible, write your own vows. Saying something that is personalized and has meaning to you will be less anxiety-provoking than simply reciting traditional vows.Practice out loud: Make sure to spend time practicing your vows out loud before the big day. Even better, try them out on a friend. Practice speaking loudly, clearly and slowly. Pause at the end of each sentence by saying a keyword such as breathe silently in your head.Memorize: When saying your vows out loud, make an attempt to memorize them. This will add meaning to what you are saying when the moment comes. Dont worry, however, if your memory fails you. Keep a copy of your vows in your hand in case you draw a blank.Visualize success: See yourself confidently saying your vows. Instead of imagining everything that could go wrong, expect that everything will go right.Speak in unison: If anxiety is getting out of hand, make a plan to have the officiant and your future spouse whisper your vows with you as you say them out loud during the ceremony. The audience wont notice and you will feel less like the center of attention.Breathe deep: Prior to and during the ceremony, practice deep breathing to induce relaxation.Look at your partner: When the time comes, gaze into the eyes of your future spouse. Imagine that you are talking only to them and you will be put more at ease.

Hypothesis Teen Suicide - 875 Words

Over a time span of one year, 2003 to 2004, suicide amongst children, especially teens has risen drastically. Contemplating suicide at any age is horrible. When a teenage, who has the ability to make informed decisions and has all the potential in the world, considers committing suicide, this is a tragedy. The tragedy suicide is the third leading cause of death among young people ages 15-24. Suicide is the second leading cause of death among college students. This paper attempts to list theories and hypothesis testing the theories of suspecting factors leading to the cause of teen suicide. Statistics and research methods applied indicate that the mortality rate is different among states. One theory is true, that teen suicide is on†¦show more content†¦These factors show that suicidal impulses in young males have more to do with the egoistic model than the anomic model.† This theory demonstrates that males could experience a decrease in low morale and self esteem, leadi ng to more concerns surfacing later on in adult years. As with males, female stressors can result from an inability to deal with interpersonal conflicts, an unplanned pregnancy, or child abuse. Some stressors cause females to have suicidal thoughts and ideations. Underling women’s suicidal attempts the concepts of vulnerability to loss, inhibition of anger, inhibition of action and aggression and low self esteem are more likely to be a factor for females than for males. The hypothesis was pursued by doctors in Sweden, who found that suicide was more closely associated with birth trauma than with any other of the 11 risk factors for which they tested, including such socioeconomic variables as parental alcoholism and a broken home. Among the medical community, the theories identified continue to be very controversial, rather than decreasing as these scientists advocate. In conclusion, 95 to 97% of teen suicide is preventable. 80% of teens attempting suicide have seen the doctor before. Students complain of problems in school, fatigue, and insomnia. These signs should be seen as red alerts â€Å"something is wrong†. Seek help for your child. References Childs, Dan, 2007. Some Experts Blame FDAShow MoreRelatedTeen Suicide Rates in Alaska1186 Words   |  5 Pagesgeographic patterns of teen suicide in Alaska, 1979-1993. Bradford D Gessner. Suicide Life - Threatening Behavior. New York: Fall 1997. Vol. 27, Iss. 3; pg. 264, 10 pgs Temporal Trends and Geographic Patterns of Teen Suicide in Alaska, written by Bradford D. Gessner, reported the findings of a study on teen suicide rates in Alaska. Using death certificates and U.S. census data to record trends in suicide rates among Alaskan teens ages 14-19, it was found that the teen suicide rate was 31.5 perRead MoreTeen Suicide : The Most Prized Award Winner842 Words   |  4 PagesTeenage Suicide As an exceptional athlete, the most prized academic award winner, a proud brother and a loving son: recently a student of Northern California attempted Suicide. But why? He had it all. He had the grades, the athletic skills, the trophy the popularity, what made him so unhappy? Unfortunately this was based on his ethnicity, which so happened to be Hispanic. A minority student in a community that prided himself on the absence of over racial conflict. The racism of his peers had beenRead MoreData Analysis and Application for Unit 9 Essay571 Words   |  3 Pagespossible future suicidal risk. Section 3 Writer’s research question that relates to this article would be, does music preference indicate the mental health status of adolescents? The null hypothesis would be there is no relationship between music preference and mental health status. The alternative hypothesis states that certain interests in music, lead or tell the mental status of the individuals. Scholars indicate that preferred genres of music by adolescents are consistent with their deep emotionalRead MoreCauses of Homophobic Bullying1551 Words   |  6 Pagesbeen tormenting kids and adults around the world: bullying. Yet Burns is not referring to any bullying. What Burns addresses in his speech, called It Gets Better, is bullying people who are gay, lesbian, or just different, (Joel Burns Tells Gay Teens It Gets Better.). The speech was powerful enough, and with just enough personal experience interjected, that it became an overnight internet sensation as well as a Technology, Education, Design (TED): Ideas Wor th Spreading video. The speech by BurnsRead MoreEssay about Adolescent Depression1718 Words   |  7 Pagesduring these transitions. It is hypothesized that adolescents that are transitioning from primary and middle education to high school have a increased symptoms of depression. The following literary review will attempt to support and identify this hypothesis. Adolescent Depression Depression is common among the adolescent population with onset around the age of 13 to 18 years of age. During this time children are faced with the pressures of adjustment, expected academic performance, puberty, peerRead MoreEssay on The Tipping Point1586 Words   |  7 PagesKing, Lynne M. Anderson, and Christine M. Pearson. From subject of: hush puppies, teen suicide, crime, smoking, incivility in the workplace and the black women’s breakthrough into clerical work. There could be many reasons why there were tipping points in these topics, but I will shed light on how hush puppies, which was a fad, had life put back in them and they were popular once again. Teens began looking at suicide as being the alternative to whatever problem they had. How most smokers had aRead MoreTeenage Years: A Critical Period of Physical, Cognitive and Biological Development902 Words   |  4 Pagesto think on his own. The ability to understand complex problems of life also develops during teenage. It is the beginning of the stage of operational thinking that involves deductive logic. A person reaps the ability to develop abstractions and hypothesis as well as analyses and understands a problem in a systematized way. Moreover, he understands all possibilities from a certain situation and develops conceptual thinking. Teenage also brings about substantial social development in a child. It isRead MoreCharacteristics Of Effective Professional Development Schools790 Words   |  4 Pagescan take on different values or be divided into categories. Examples include family income, home zip code, and age. Recently, while preparing to write the narrative for a grant application, I reviewed 2013 survey results summarizing the violence, suicide, and safety behaviors of Duval County Middle School students. Variables such as type of violence, school year, gender, health zone, and risk factors were included (Florida Health Duval County and Duval County Public Schools, 2013). 5. An independentRead MoreDepression And Its Effects On Children986 Words   |  4 Pagesfeel excluded from society. In this stage, teens start using their mind for moral behavior and decision making. This is when children, begin puberty and start an irregular hormonal stage. As physical characteristics change in a teen’s body also does the perception of themselves start to develop in their mind. For example, when teenagers are not acknowledged by their peers they begin to exclude themselves from the outside world. Additionally, if the teen feels out of place they start isolating themselvesRead MoreThe Spreading of Cyber Bullying1599 Words   |  6 Pagesbullying is a growing problem and has moved to the forefront of public concern in recent years due to a large number of incidents that have received media attention (Tokunaga, 2009). Most recently, a case involving a 12-year old girl who committed suicide as a result from cyber bullying received national attention. This case occurred in Polk County, Fl., and has been described as one of the most tragic cyber bullying stories of our time (Hellmich, 2013). Rebecca Sedwick of Lakeland, Fla., who died

Why People Commit Crime Essay - 1621 Words

The term criminal desistance refers to when offenders desist, or stop, committing crime. Desistance from crime exists when an individual has an absence of criminal behavior in their lives for a sustained period of time. By studying desistance, there is a better understanding of what causes individuals to commit crime; as well as, a better understanding as to why certain individuals discontinue their lives of crime. The criminal justice field often encompasses, serving justice by locking people up and keeping the â€Å"bad guys† away from the general public. Previously there was little thought as to what can be done in order to help prevent people from committing crime, until more recent years. Most criminological theories attempt to explain why people commit crime, only a few theories attempt to explain why people do not commit crime. By creating a better understanding of desistance the criminal justice system experiences benefits in the form of, lower crime rates, less crowd ing in detention centers, and most importantly more productive members of society. The reasons as to why individuals desist from crime can range from genetic, environmental, social, or psychophysiological. One belief focuses on the idea that criminals desist from crime through pro-social development and a worthwhile career path. Criminologists Laub and Sampson, Maruna, Matsueda and Heimer largely support this idea. In a study conducted by Aresti, Eatough and Gordon, five ex-offenders participated inShow MoreRelatedWhy People Commit The Crime Essay1538 Words   |  7 Pagescriminal justice process. Criminological theory is important because most of what is done in criminal justice is based on criminological theory, whether we or the people who propose and implement policies based on the theory know it or not. In criminology, examining why people commit the crime is very important in the ongoing debate on how crime should be handled or committed. Several criminological theories that best describe the cause for juvenile delinquency is social disorganization, strain, socialRead MoreWhy People Commit Crimes1403 Words   |  6 Pagesperson has it own opinion. Crime is the human conduct in violation of the criminal laws of a state, the federal government, or a local jurisdiction that has the power to make such laws, according with Schmalleger. The criminal behavior is the antisocial acts that a person commits for different reasons. This means that the person violated laws constantly for a long or short time period. There are many reasons why criminals commit crimes. Some of the criminals commit crimes for necessity, others forRead MoreWhy People Commit Crimes?1255 Words   |  6 PagesWhy People Commit Crimes Author: admin Monday, 22 Sep 2014 It is known that people commit crimes for various reasons, such as social factors, economic and cultural reasons. All these factors have negative impact on the individuals and trigger them to be involved in criminal activities. For example, social factors are focused on the role of society in the life of an individual. The reasons of many crimes are concluded in peer pressure, school failure, prejudices and stereotyping, etc. Economic reasonsRead MoreWhy People Commit Crime?1417 Words   |  6 PagesThroughout History, there have been many speculations as to why people commit crime. Criminologists, Psychologists, Sociologists and even Biologists have all, at one time or another claimed to have an explanation. However, there is one underlying explanation that has been maintained across centuries, presented by various theorists, and to this day, is widely perceived as truthful. That is the explanation that a certain propensity to commit crime exists within the lower classes of society that does notRead MoreWhy People Commit The Crimes2635 Words   |  11 Pages Introduction There are many different theories out there of why people commit the crimes they do. In fact there are several theories that are apart of the different aspects of those theories. For hundreds of years people have been trying to figure out what causes people to engage in deviant behavior. It has been a field that has changed the way it has looked at why criminals commit the crimes that they do. The theory that I am going to be covering in this paper is that of the Strain TheoryRead MoreWhy People Commit Crimes?933 Words   |  4 PagesCrime has been around for as long as humans have had law. It is an unavoidable part of our society. A question that has been under study for almost the same amount of time is the issue of why people commit crimes. What is the motivation behind criminals and their behavior? Many theories have been made for different situations and types of criminals. These theories can also be applied to crimes that occur in movies. For the film, Lawless, neut ralization theory can be applied to a lot of theRead MoreWhy People Commit Crime? Essay1825 Words   |  8 Pagesexplain crime; some focus on why people commit crime, others focus on why people do not commit crime. A major flaw with the existing criminological theories is the fact that every theory attempts to explain a large number of criminal acts. In fact, crime cannot be explained by one theory alone; it is the combination of several theories and ideas that explains why crime exists, and these theories cannot be applied to all crime as a whole; rather, they are best used when applied to certain crimes in combinationRead MoreThe Reasons Why People Commit Crime1659 Words   |  7 Pages There are many reason why people commit crime. Many people have created theories on why people commit crime and how to reduce the crime rates. People commit crime due to constant strain. They, also, commit crime because they are constantly exposed to definitions that favor crime. For example, som e people have parents that are criminal due to their parents being criminals and still around them the child would not view crime as bad or harmful. People, also, may commit crime because they have weekRead MoreWhy to People Commit Crimes? Essay927 Words   |  4 PagesPeople commit crimes for various reasons. These various reasons got to do with social, economic, and cultural reason. These factors trigger an individual to do criminal activities. Social reasons are peer pressure, and school failure. Economic reasons are poverty. Cultural reasons are hatred. The combination of these factors is behind a person who commits crimes. To start with, people commit crime because of social reasons. The social reasons are poor parenting skills, peer influence, drugsRead MoreWhy Do People Commit Crimes?1145 Words   |  5 Pagesunderstand why people commit crimes and why they engaged in anti-social behavior. It may sound simple but scientist and criminologist have struggled to answer this question. There is not a central reason that leads a person to engage in a criminal behavior but there are numerous of factors that contribute for one person to break the laws. Several theories have been analyzed and studied by criminologists but the criminal justice system not only relies in one theory why people commit crimes. I believe

Critically discuss Michel Foucault’s concept of knowledge/power Free Essays

In â€Å"The Order of Things† (1973) Michel Foucault describes an episteme as the combination of institutions, discourses, knowledges and practices that organise the way we do things, making some actions acceptable and others unthinkable. He also says these processes of organisation in society are generally invisible. Critically discuss Michel Foucault’s concept of knowledge/power with reference to Arthur Miller’s film â€Å"The Crucible. We will write a custom essay sample on Critically discuss Michel Foucault’s concept of knowledge/power or any similar topic only for you Order Now † Michel Foucault’s is a theorist who demonstrates a modernist way of thinking. Based on one of David Morley’s definitions of the postmodern phenomenon being â€Å"a form of cultural sensibility and a mode of thought, particularly appropriate to analyzing the period† (Morley: 1996, p. 50), Foucault could be considered a postmodernist and a poststructuralist. However, some may consider his earlier works, like The Order of Things, to be structuralist as it may have possibly reflected a lack of distinction at the time it was written and received. Rather than narrating the nature of reality, Foucault intended to give descriptions of a variety of structures of knowledge also referred to as episteme. Arthur Miller’s film â€Å"The Crucible† explores issues that are parallel to Foucault’s thoughts of power and knowledge, however, Miller uses actual historical events as the background for his modernist ideas. The concept of knowledge and power explored in Foucault’s text The Order of Things can be critically analysed with reference to more contemporary work of Arthur Miller, allowing one to draw distinctions between Foucault’s theories and the concepts of collective evil, personal conscience, guilt, love and redemption explored in the film. In The Order of Things, Foucault can give up the philosophy of the subject without depending on ideas from social issues in society, which, according to his own analysis, are confined the modern form of knowledge. Foucault had studied the form of knowledge that appears with the claim of rescuing the intelligible from everything empirical, accidental, and particular, and that becomes especially suitable as medium of power in particular on account of this â€Å"pretended separation of validity from genesis† (Kelly: 1995, p. 82). This lack of empiricism in Foucault’s thoughts reflects a modernist way of thinking. The article â€Å"Conclusion: Speaking as Deputy Sheriff† by Osborne and Lewis, has evidence of a similar modernist approach to thinking and lack of empirical theories. It is less focused on the idea that what ever is true should be measured; instead it makes statements and develops an analysis based on sciences or theory. An example is when it suggests that â€Å"a more historically aware approach to thinking about communication in Australia would be a useful place to start† (Lewis Osborne: 2001, p212). This modernist approach to thinking about knowledge determines â€Å"the ensemble of rules according to which the true and the false are separated and specific effects of power attached to the true† (Kelly: 1995, p. 82). At the beginning of The Order of Things, Foucault claims for a will that consists of truth for all times and all societies: â€Å"Every society has its regime of truth, its ‘general politics’ of truth: that is, the types of discourse which it accepts and makes it function as true. † This ideology is reflected in Arthur Miller’s film â€Å"The Crucible† which is set in a small town, Salem. The entire village becomes consumed by certain beliefs and certain truths which include their indisputable faith in God and the existence of witches, witch craft and the devil. The Order of Things is the story of the â€Å"return of language† which explains the fundamental position of literature in our culture. Ours is a period in which language is taken to be at the source of all thought, and this is what highlights the importance of modernist writing. Language is â€Å"the strict unfolding of Western culture in accordance with the necessity it imposed upon itself at the beginning of the nineteenth century† (Rajchman: 1985, p. 3). The significance of language is also reflected in ‘The Crucible’ when John Proctor refuses to sign a false confession, claiming â€Å"you can not take away my name†. He believed this would have happened by signing the confession onto paper, epitomising the impact that language has when printed on paper. In The Order of Things, Foucault paints a picture of modernist culture in which there is no character of man and science is no longer independent or universal. All scientific, aesthetic, and moral problems are reduced to problems of language, and languages have no warrant or foundation beyond themselves. Rajchman states that â€Å"Language becomes the limits of our being. It is only in transgressive writing that these limits are transcended; writers are the heroes of our age. This is a picture of what I call ‘post-Enlightenment literary culture. ‘† Many literary modernists, including Rajchman and Foucault, tell the story of how language had returned as the fundamental problem of our period, and our literacy culture which thus â€Å"finds itself† to be telling its own history. Foucault claims that â€Å"literature in our day†¦ s a phenomenon whose necessity has its roots in a vast configuration in which the whole structure of our thought and our knowledge is traced† (Rajchman: 1985, p. 25). In The Order of Things, it is clear that Foucault is hostile to the culture that reifies Man, and urges the reader to embrace the post-humanist age he foresees. Foucault rejects the traditional (Enlightenment) idea of progress and science, instead he constructs his history of knowledge with a lack of connection, and his literary history contains a hidden teleology giving way to immediate links to â€Å"The Crucible†. Stuart Hall and Bram Gieben describe the Enlightenment idea of progress as â€Å"the idea that the natural and social condition of human beings could be improved, by the application of science and reason† (Hall Gieben: 1992, p. 22). â€Å". Both Miller and Foucault are modernist thinkers as they reject this Enlightenment concepts of progress, for example, the film â€Å"The Crucible† does not end with an improved social condition and happiness instead it comes to an abrupt end by the death of a central character and hero. In The Order of Things we find an attempt to â€Å"de-anthropologise† the concept of freedom. In â€Å"The Crucible†, John Proctor found freedom in the form of death. By not giving up his name in the confession he was condemned to be hung. However, his knowledge of what the real truth was allowed him to be free in his own sense of the word. This relates to Foucault’s idea of power that he describes as â€Å"a way in which certain actions modify others† (O’Farrell: 1989, p. 119). But because of the freedom of the acting subjects, no matter what violence or seduction actions that make up power choose to exercise, the object of power can ultimately escape and refuse power even if only through death. This idea was taken from Foucault who said â€Å"the exercise of power may produce as much acceptance as may be wished for: it can pile up the dead and shelter itself behind whatever threats it can imagine. In itself the exercise of power is not violence; nor is it a consent which implicitly is renewable† (Foucault: 1977, p. 228). O’Farrell and Foucault’s ideas are epitomized in the film ‘The Crucible’, when John Proctor refused to sign the confession or in this case refused power, he was set free even if it were to be through death. These power relationships were then abolished once the subject was freed and hence there was no possible point of reversal hence the film was forced to an abrupt end. Foucault also believes there is no suspicion that our language, our work, and our bodies might determine the description of our actions and our world in ways we do not realise and can’t change. However, there are many reasons why this theory should be questioned, an example existing in the film â€Å"The Crucible†. The young girls who were accused of witchery manifested power over their bodies and their language in order to convince the courts and an entire village of the existence of ‘their world’ and the fact they could see the devil. All this was done in a quest to cover up their actions that was dancing naked around a fire in the forest. This idea creates a contradiction to Foucault’s theory. However, Foucault also says that our problem becomes â€Å"not the possibility of knowledge but the possibility of a primary misunderstanding† (Rajchman: 1985, p. 13) which indeed was true in the case of the young girls of the film. In The Order Of Things, Foucault challenges new intellectual writings in regard to the change in utopian thought. In the classical period, utopia was the dream of an ideal beginning in which everything would perfectly fit into Tables of Representation. In Foucault’s argument he states that â€Å"The great dream of an end of History is the utopia of casual systems of thought just as the dream of the world’s beginnings was the utopia of the classifying systems of thoughts. In â€Å"The Crucible† the idea of witch craft challenges this world of utopia and one can question who has the authority to classify utopia, Miller or Foucault? Foucault’s ideas challenge many of the ideas that run through â€Å"The Crucible† as he wishes not only to â€Å"de anthropologise† any nineteenth century utopian imaginations, dissociate our hopes of ever realising meaning and separate our freedom from philosophical theories about our nature. Much of Foucault’s work is contradictory and this confuses anyone trying to analyse meaning in his writings. In The Order of Things he had looked at the way in which the human subject is defined through scientific discourse as a working, living, speaking individual (O’Leary: 2002, p. 59). However, Foucault deals with a collective and a great deal is to do with his unconscious ideas of perceptions; individuals play almost no role in his work. He is not concerned with the discoveries of scientists or other philosophers. However, it is difficult to imagine the human sciences without specific individuals. Thus, Foucault uses individuals such as Ricardo, Cuvier and Bopp in his work, however they â€Å"are not depicted as real people, no reference is made to their lives and little consideration is given to the controversies surrounding their ideas, since these issues are regarded as merely surface phenomena† (Spier: 1983, p. 166). As a result, the reliability of Foucault’s work can be questioned because a crucial part of critical thinking and analysis when investigating other theorists work is their background and what may be the reasons behind their specific way of thinking. However, Foucault justifies himself explaining that he â€Å"tries to explore scientific discourse not from the point of view of the formal structures of what they are saying, but from the point of view of the rules that come into play in the very existence of such discourse† (Spier: 1983, p. 166). Spier raises an interesting critic of Foucault bringing his status as an author-subject into question. â€Å"If language rather than man speaks, as he claims, and if the statement â€Å"I am writing† is a contradiction comparable to â€Å"I am lying†, then who is the author of the order of things? (Spier: 1983, p. 167). This raises the question, is Foucault a universal voice of our time or is he merely speaking for himself. If he is speaking for himself as he suggests, then does he claim that what he is saying is a lie? Much of Foucault’s work makes contradictory statements and thus is not necessarily reliable when looking for truths, instead his writing is the developing process of his thoughts and is often experimental so should be read with an open mind and thought about critically. Foucault’s analyses may be regarded as a contribution to an understanding of the historical conditions of possibility of the human sciences and their social and political effects. The underlying connection within Foucault’s work is the assessment of the relation between forms of rationality and forms of power, or of the relation between the emergence of particular forms of knowledge and the exercise of specific forms of power. Foucault believes that power is exercised upon the dominant as well as on the dominated and that there is a process of self-formation or auto-colonisation involved (Smart: 1983, p. 4). If we put this theory into practice within â€Å"The Crucible† one can suggest that Foucault’s idea of power is quite naive. In â€Å"The Crucible† the young girls were from the dominant culture in Salem and exercised their power over the lower classes (or the dominated). However, there was no retaliation and so power was not exercised onto the girls (the dominant) in any case. Thus, Foucault theory is merely a generalisation and not appropriate as a rule on the whole. Power relations, Foucault claims are â€Å"‘intentional’ and ‘non-subjective’†¦ They are imbued, through and through, with calculation: there is no power that is exercised without a series of aims and objectives† (Dreyfus Rabinow: 1982, p. 187). This idea states that at the local level there is often a high degree of conscious decision making, planning and plotting. Foucault refers to this as the local cynicism of power (Dreyfus Rabinow: 1982, p. 187). In â€Å"The Crucible† the young girls execute power over the village through their conscious actions to protect themselves, many were young and naive, and fear was driving them to accuse the innocent. Their actions would ultimately lead the execution of innocent and respected members of the town. Some of the elder girls such as the head Abigail knew very well of her actions and used strategically planned methods of power. The following phrase by Foucault epitomises power very accurately when in relation to these girls from â€Å"The Crucible†; â€Å"People know what they do; they frequently know why they do what they do; but don’t know is what they do does† (Dreyfus Rabinow: 1982, p. 187). This theory on power is an example of how both Foucault and Miller may have been influenced by other modernist thinkers such as Max Weber, a modernist thinker. He believed that power is the †chance of a man or a number of men to realize their own will in a social action even against the resistance of others who are participating in the action† (Max Weber, Basic Terms-The Fundamental Concepts of Sociology: 1942) In much of Foucault’s writing there are seeming contradictions especially in this return to the traditional philosophic view or Enlightenment idea that description and interpretation ultimately must correspond to the way things really are. However, Foucault does admit to his somewhat unreal approach to writing. â€Å"I am fully aware that I have never written anything other than fiction. For all that, I would want to say that they were outside the truth. It seems plausible to me to make fictions work within truth, to introduce truth-effects within a fictional discourse†¦ † With this is mind one can say that Foucault’s writing is still informative and helpful in its own right and reveals more about society and its practices than about ultimate reality. In The Order of Things, Foucault does describe an episteme as the combination of institutions, discourses, knowledge and practices that organise the way we do things, making some actions acceptable rather than unthinkable. In many ways Foucault’s concepts of knowledge and power are contradictory to his own existing theories. While many of Foucault’s ideas are parallel with Arthur Miller’s film, â€Å"The Crucible†, some of his ideas reject Miller’s way of thinking. This non-uniformity in Foucault’s analysis can however be justified, because it is hard to believe that in any given culture and at any given moment, there is only one episteme that defines the possibility of all knowledge, power relations, the concepts of freedom and truth, whether it be in a theory or demonstrated in practice or action. How to cite Critically discuss Michel Foucault’s concept of knowledge/power, Papers

Marx and Durkheim agreed about the nature of the problems of industrial capitalist society but disagreed about their cause and solution Essay Example

Marx and Durkheim agreed about the nature of the problems of industrial capitalist society but disagreed about their cause and solution Paper Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) was a French, arguably quintessential, sociologist with his assertions that society sui generis is the subject matter of sociology. Treat social facts as things is a famous dictum of Durkheim by which he means social phenomena is an objective realm, external to individuals. Social facts are ways of acting, thinking or feeling that are external to individuals, having their own reality outside the perceptions and lives of individuals (Giddens, 2001, p9). These social facts exercise a coercive power over individuals. Durkheim considered sociology as a new science. By examining traditional philosophical questions empirically, sociology could be used to elucidate these questions. We will write a custom essay sample on Marx and Durkheim agreed about the nature of the problems of industrial capitalist society but disagreed about their cause and solution specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Marx and Durkheim agreed about the nature of the problems of industrial capitalist society but disagreed about their cause and solution specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Marx and Durkheim agreed about the nature of the problems of industrial capitalist society but disagreed about their cause and solution specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Durkheim was intensely concerned about the social pathology of contemporary industrial society (Anderson et al, 1987, p47). Durkheim was also particularly interested in social and moral solidarity and so studied what holds society together and what keeps society from descending into chaos. Durkheim approached modernity and the industrial revolution through the study of the division of labour (LaCapra, 1972, p82). In 1893 Durkheim wrote his first major works, The Division of Labour in Society in which he contrasted mechanical and organic solidarity and related them to the growth of distinctions between different occupations the division of labour. Durkheim argued that primitive societies were characterised by a mechanical solidarity with a limited division of labour. Social solidarity was based on shared values, all individuals performed similar tasks and were bound together by a common collective conscience. After a gradual move towards an organic society with an advanced division of labour, individuals had different occupational roles and social solidarity was based on moral individualism and cultural pluralism. Social integration was based upon the division of labour. Although Durkheim rejected ideas of both Comte and Saint-Simon, Durkheim did believe that the organic division of labour could provide the basis for individual freedom and social co-operation if the pathological features of contemporary society were eliminated (Anderson et al, 1987, p47). Durkheim introduced the concept of anomie to sociology, which literally means without norms. Anomie exists when society fails to provide a limiting framework of social norms, resulting in unhappiness and social disorders. Durkheim aimed to establish sociology as a science and to establish the requirements to maintain social order in modern societies. After witnessing the growth of industrial production and the inequalities that resulted from this growth, Karl Marx (1818-1883) sought to explain the changes that were occurring in society during the Industrial Revolution era. Marx saw the new and old societies, capitalism and feudalism, in stark contrast. Feudalism was based on the agricultural, rural society, the opposite of industrial capitalist society. Industrial capitalism is dominated by the market. In the production of goods for the market their intrinsic worth plays little part; the worth of any commodity is its exchange value. Everything in society is dominated by the cash nexus, including labour which becomes another commodity to be bought and sold (Anderson et al, 1987, p5). Marx argued that the capitalist property-owners form a ruling class, whom Marx called the bourgeoisie, employers of wage-labour, the property-less working class, whom Marx labelled the proletariat. As industrialisation developed, large numbers of peasants moved to expanding cities and so aided the formation of an urban-based industrial working class. The middle class of merchants and manufacturers (or capitalists) were bourgeois, as distinguished from the remnant of the feudal class, from the proletariat of industrial labourers, and from the peasantry (Smelser et al, 1976, p54). Marx argued that Capitalism is inherently a class system in which class relations are characterised by conflict (Giddens, 2001, p12). In Marxs view, the bourgeoisie were able to generate profit by exploiting the proletariat through oppressive devaluation of skilled labour and its experience. Ultimately, for Marx, this led to alienation the degradation of the workers to become a most miserable sort of commodity whose misery is in inverse proportion to the power and size of his production (Marx, 1848, p77). This commodity would become the social class, called the proletariat by Marx. Labour was organised solely with regard to efficiency and the pursuit of profit. These factors led to inequalities of the working class which increased dramatically the gap between the capitalists and the working class, as well as the wealth and lifestyles of property-owners. Shopkeepers, independent craftsmen and so on were undermined as capitalist production developed a competitive appetite. Marx claimed that it is not acquisitive and competitive individuals who produce capitalist society. It is capitalist society that produces competitive and acquisitive individuals (Hughes et al, 1995). Marx and Durkheim often had conflicting ideas. However, they did share similar views about some sociological ideas. Both believed that scientifically based knowledge of society could be used to improve the conditions of humanity. Both believed their task was to discover the laws that governed the organisation of the social order and draw parallels with the ways in which the natural sciences had revealed the laws of nature. When looking at the nature of the problems of industrial capitalist society, Marx and Durkheim share the argument that the individual and collective were in opposition to one another. They both believed that the individual is a naturally self-interested being which flourished only when exempt from any kind of control by society was a manifestation of modern society and, indeed, of the most pathological features of that society (Anderson et al, 1987, p132). Marx and Durkheim both viewed the individual as a being with a need for society. However, Marx suggested that Man has a nature that will eventually assert and fulfil itself and will do so at the expense of a decadent social order (Smelser et al, 1976, p123). Durkheim claimed that Mans need for society is met less by substantive principles of justice and more by social ties and normative limits (Smelser et al, 1976, p123). Marx and Durkheim argued that we live in societies, called organic by Durkheim and capitalist by Marx, in which people are increasingly, individually, able to do what they want to do but less and less part of social groups. The idea that people should be free from external constraint was opposed by neither Durkheim nor Marx but both believe that in modern societies, extreme freedom can be a bad thing for the individual. Marx and Durkheim tried to disclose the concept of freedom of the individual in western societies of the nineteenth century as an illusion. The freedom of the individual was, Marx argued, only apparent, a superficial kind of freedom (Anderson et al, 1987, p132). Although Marx and Durkheim showed agreement about the problems of industrial capitalist society they disagreed about the causes, as we have seen, and solutions, of this society. Durkheim displayed a particular avoidance of much of Marxs work. Durkheim did relatively little to build upon the integration with the work of Marx. The Marx whom Durkheim particularly abhorred was the Marx who advocated class conflict and violent revolution in modern society (LaCapra, 1972, p23). Durkheim believed that the conception of modern society proceeded through a pathological state of rapid transition, developing into normality. Durkheim was optimistic that modern society possessed the ability to resolve the severe problems produced by industrial capitalist society. Like the political and social theorist Rousseau, Marx desired a means to vanquish the inequalities and divisions of the society of his time and to constitute a true community. In place of the old bourgeois society, with its classes and class antagonisms, we shall have an association, in which the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all (Marx, 1848, p31). Marx, also like Rousseau, pinpointed the obstacle to attainment in the circumstantially developed divisions among people, particularly the division of labour. Marx argued that social change is primarily prompted by economic influences. Class conflicts provide the drive for historical development and change. Marx called this idea the materialist conception of history. The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles (Marx, 1848, p222). In accordance with his view of history, Marx argued that just like the bourgeois had united to abolish the feudal society, so too would the bourgeois be ousted and a new society installed. Marx believed that the proletariat would develop the capacity and the will overtime to revolt, resulting in the downfall of the capitalist system. This would enable a new society to evolve in which there would be no classes and so no vast divisions between rich and poor. Marx believed that inequalities would no longer contain the split of the mass of the population that were exploited by the ruling class who, in their small minority, monopolised the economical and political power. The revolution that would overthrow capitalism would lead to communism. This political ideology, derived from socialism, aimed to create a society in which private productive property, social classes and the state are absent. With the revolutionary defeat of capitalism, Marx envisaged the emergence of socialist societies in which the state would still play a role but only with the transformation of all property relations. Whereas Marx saw the solution to social problems in terms of direct political actions, Durkheim took a more Clinician-cum-managerialist view by emphasising the effective treatment of the pathological conditions which can afflict society through the deliberate reorganisation of its institutions (Hughes et al, 1995). Durkheim believed modern society would naturally evolve in the direction of normality, certainly without violent revolution (LaCapra, 1973, p22). Durkheim argues that individuals need to integrate forms of behaviour. Individuals now pursue varied lines of work, are not self-sufficient and must engage in multiple exchanges with others. The mechanical society, where individuals performed similar tasks and experienced shared values, is not enough for the individual, who wants to pursue different roles and experience freedom to do what the individual wants to do. The view of human nature held by Durkheim was that there is no natural limit to the desires, ambitions or needs of the individual. This view stands in the tradition of the English philosopher and political theorist, Thomas Hobbes. Durkheim argued that the required limits must be socially produced. Durkheims concept of anomie is a condition of society.. in which there exists little consensus, a lack of certainty on values or goals, and a loss of effectiveness in the normative and moral framework which regulates collective and individual life (Jary, 2000). Durkheim sees anomie as an abnormal social form, resulting from the failure of modern societies to move fully from a mechanical society to an organic society. What Durkheim called an anomic division of labour existed because occupations were not allocated according to skills or experience and so were obliterated. Economic activity in these societies remained unregulated by a coherent value system. Not only did Durkheim criticise the anomic character of the division of labour but also its forced and excessive character. It was forced because the inheritance of private property meant that individuals were not free to find the work most suited to their skills and talents; it was excessive because workers often had insufficient work to keep them occupied in a way that produced job satisfaction (Anderson et al, 1987, p48). Durkheim argued that these factors of the modern divisions of labour led to class conflict. Durkheims solution to the problems of industrial capitalist society was to properly regulate the division of labour. This would end class struggles, achieved through economic co-operation among modern guild associations and through the overall political and moral guidance of a liberal republican state whose power could be checked as necessary through these same guilds(Anderson et al, 1987, p48). Durkheim proposed that the organisation of intermediate groups, such as professional and occupational groups, would enable the individual to bind into the community. Both conflicting and confirming each other at various stages of their writings, Marx and Durkheim, when analysed, attract similar conclusions as to the nature of the problems of industrial capitalist societies. The theorists seem to recognise that capitalism is inevitable and both agree that inequality is the foreseeable outcome. Both Marxs and Durkheims work have attracted criticism and opposition. Marxs class analysis has been opposed for not sufficiently considering the rise of new middle class groups, or affluence. This suggests that Marxs theory of social change and revolution is wrong, although Marx never set a time scale for revolution. Durkheims work has attracted criticism for overstating general normative and social structural influences at the expense of individual agency, although it was always Durkheims intention to leave scope for the latter within his sociology (Jary, 2000). Marx developed a theory that generated specific predictions about the future of capitalism (Smelser et al, 1976, p259). Marx argued that society is a human product, that mens thinking and acting shape the social world, although he also claims that man is a social product. Marxs theory helped to shape sociology even as it was changing the world; Durkheims influence on sociology is unparalleled (Smelser et al, 1976, p70). Despite criticisms and opposing theories, Marx and Durkheim have left a major impression on the sociological world that has shaped and influenced modern sociology and its theorists.